VN October 2023

Vetnuus | October 2023 16 welfare at tourist camps and temples was poor compared with zoos and forest camps [126]. Another study collated information on elephants in private ownership in India and found 63% had leg/foot injuries; 16% eye problems; 14% other health issues such as gastrointestinal, urinary, respiratory, and parasitic problems; and 7% wounds and abscesses [134]. In addition, 89% of elephants were not allowed to free roam, 35% were confined with spiked chains or hobbled by forelegs, and the mean duration of chaining was 15.8 h [134]. A 2019 study involving 638 observations of 122 elephants in 15 tourist camps in Thailand, recorded 61% nail cracks (mostly minor), and 23% wounds (mostly abrasions related to hook use) [1]. The authors’ assessment of a high wound score decreased by 70% when hooks were not used. Among observations of elephants for riding, 5% included ulcers on the back and chest associated with saddle use [1]. A 2015 study concluded that of 1422 captive elephants at 88 venues in Thailand, 86% were kept on short chains when not being used for tourist activities, 25.6% on a concrete floor, and 34.2% were not allowed direct social contact with other elephants [135]. The majority of Asian elephants in temple and private captive environments were kept in solitary confinement (95% and 82%, respectively) with a corresponding proportion of elephants exhibiting stereotypies (weaving, head bobbing, and pacing) – 49% in temples and 26% in private facilities [127]. A survey of 627 elephants at 33 camps in Northern Thailand, using mahout interviews to assess behavior, found that 25% of animals exhibited stereotypic repetitive movement activities, although the authors interpret that this is likely an underestimate [136]. Another study among observed elephants found that 40% exhibited stereotypic behavior [134]. A 2018 study found that of 53 Asian elephants previously used for riding, street begging, logging, and/or circus-type shows, 74% exhibited at least some symptoms of complex post-traumatic stress disorder, including cognitive symptoms, mood disturbances, and overdeveloped avoidance responses [63]. Post- traumatic stress disorder may account for the fact that wild-caught Asian female elephants are 28% less likely to ever reproduce than non-wild captive elephants [128]. Government figures estimate that the mortality rate for all wild capture methods of Asian elephants is between 5% and 30%, with most of these deaths occurring during the months following capture [128]. Discussion One health, one welfare The term “one health” represents an enduring paradigm in which the environment, animals, and people are considered interconnected [137–139], and elephant-human disease prevention and control has been specifically highlighted within this concept [110]; meaning that threats to health between elephants and people may be exacerbated by negative one health factors. Similarly, the paradigm of “one welfare” considers the relationship between animal welfare, human well-being, and the physical and social environment [140]; meaning that the health and welfare dynamics of the elephant-human relationship are largely inseparable and may impact coactors, and poor health is associated with increased risk of pathogen shedding. Collectively, these paradigms infer that the reduction or resolution of animal-public health and welfare issues invites multidisciplinary involvement and effort [137, 138, 140]. Furthermore, concerns exist as to whether psychologically and behaviorally damaged elephants and other animals may negatively impact the mental states of their observers [63]. Accordingly, negative factors within the one health, one welfare, and paradigms can reasonably be extrapolated to elevate potential risks from zoonoses and their transmissibility. Anthropogenic pressures, including shrinking natural habitat, and concentration of species into novel, atypical, and potentially unstable ecologies may create conditions for both exacerbation of established infectious diseases, re-emergence of diseases, and emergence of novel threats from pathogens and diseases [141, 142], including at the elephant-human interface [29]. Public health and safety Elephant-human zoonoses and other diseases There is a paucity of data regarding both the incidence and prevalence of pathogens and diseases relevant to the elephant-human interface. However, this information deficit does not infer a lack of zoonotic potential or importance because relevant species- and interspecies- specific susceptibilities toward health risks between elephants and humans are well understood. Where data or our understanding of zoonotic threats are minimal, the reasonable tendency is to heighten scientific concerns regarding pathogens, their transmission cycles, and disease with the aim of alleviating public health risks [141]. Where a potential pathogen is known to affect both elephants and humans and has the capacity to transfer laterally between these species, then the precautionary principle implies that even in situations of little available data, epidemics and pandemics may be “preemergent.” Preemergent epidemics and pandemics may depend on subtle yet criticalco-initiatorssuchasminoranthropogenicecologicaldisturbances or greater encroachment into already pressurized elephant or other animal habitats [46, 141]. It is entirely possible that with or without anthropogenic or natural “gamechangers” in the relationships between potential pathogens, and elephants and humans, no significant health threats are elevated or emerge. However, despite long-standing scientific advocation toward adoption of the precautionary principle to avoid emergent epidemics and pandemics, little acknowledgment has been given to this inferred wisdom, at least not before SARSCoV-2/COVID-19, which exemplified the value of a cautious approach. Established, emergent, and preemergent pathogens and diseases The pathogens and diseases cited in Table-1 and elsewhere include both established and emerging issues in the elephant-human relationship. Preemergent issues are those that invite speculation based on hypothetical scenarios, whichmay or may not holdmerit, but are worthy of some considerations. For example, although not included in Table-1 due to their highly hypothetical nature, pathogens and diseases such as SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 understandably raised concern regarding potential infectivity and elephants [143]. Thus far, no data appear available to confirm any significant links between the SARS-CoV-2 virus and risks to elephants or vice versa, and early worries may largely have been alleviated. Our rationale of concern is reasonable in that in nature, many pathogenic agents, including a range of coronaviruses, are widespread, and many animal species harbor strong potential for hosting their cross-contamination by numerous transmission routes [144, 145]. Already, certain species, notablyAsianbats, andpangolins are implicated as carriers of SARS-CoV-2 [144]. Several other species, including lions, cats, dogs, mink, ferrets, and rabbits have been identified as susceptible to the virus and have experienced morbidities and mortalities, and some species appear potential sufferers, transmitters, or carriers of