VN October 2023

Oktober 2023 15 Elephant welfare Reported concerns regarding elephant welfare span physical and mental abuse during training and general husbandry, injury, and disease (Table-3 [1, 4, 7, 63, 126–132] for summary), often related to misperceptions that elephants are domesticated rather than wild animals. A study [133] of 3129 veterinary treatments (involving 1386 elephants mostly at tourist camps) undertaken by the Mobile Elephant Clinic in Thailand between 2005 and 2008, recorded: 19.1%wounds; 17.6% poor body condition; 14.9% ectoparasites; 14.1% eye problems; 9.8%musculoskeletal problems; 7.8% gastrointestinal issues; 4.1% tusk problems; 3.6% dermatology issues; 3.5% reproductive issues, and 3.1% foot problems. A visual health assessment of 81 Asian elephants at ten facilities found that 43% exhibited hyperkeratosis, 84% had foot fissures or toe cracks, 8.5% had eye-related problems, 16% had physical wounds, 12% had abscesses, and 41% displayed signs of edema and concluded that elephant Table-2: Zoonoplasticity intuitive risk assessment score (Tier 2) for confirmed and potential elephant-to-human-pathogen or disease. Pathogen Disease Score (Range 1–50+ points) (preweighted score=10) Rating (Low, Moderate, High, Very high Bacillus anthracis Anthrax 38 High Clostridium spp Clostridium infection 33 High Escherichia coli Escherichia coli infection 30 Moderate Aerococcus viridans Gaffkemia 10 Low Leptospira interrogans Leptospirosis 25 Moderate Pasteurella multocida Pasteurellosis/ hemorrhagic septicemia 21 Moderate Salmonella spp. Salmonellosis 21 Moderate Mycobacterium spp. Tuberculosis 47 Very High Orthopoxvirus spp. Elephant pox virus infection 26 Moderate Cryptosporidium spp. Cryptosporidiosis 27 Moderate Oesophagostomum spp Helminthiasis 12 Low Toxoplasma gondii Toxoplasmosis 26 Moderate Worked scores for Tier 2 questionnaire (Qs 1–6 of zoonoplasticity algorithm, see [74]) in above examples are as follows: anthrax 3,3,1,10,6(15); clostridium infection 3,3,1,10,6(15); E. coli infection 6,3,3,10,3(5); gaffkemia 1,0,1,1,6(1); leptospirosis 1,0,1,10,3(10); pasteurellosis/hemorrhagic septicemia 1,0,1,3,6(10); salmonellosis 3,3,2,3,5(5); TB 6,6,6,10,4(15); elephant pox virus infection 1,4,3,4,4(10); cryptosporidiosis 6,5,2,3,6(5); helminthiasis 3,0,1,1,6(1); and toxoplasmosis 3,3,6,3,6(5). Where data are insufficient or absent, a minimal or medial estimate score has been applied for each evaluation question Table-3: Physical and psychobehavioral welfare concerns for elephants in tourism. Example types of abuse References Wild capture (capture trauma and long-term negative consequences for health and reproduction) [1, 4, 7, 128, 129] Breaking (forceful coercion and domination) [63, 130, 131] Psychological and physical torment (fear, verbal chastisement, invasive sounds, beating with steel bars, sticks with imbedded nails, ankuses, use of crushes or Phajaan ritual – forced psychobehavioral domination, food deprivations) [1, 4, 7, 63, 130–132] Maladaptation stereotypies (e.g., repetitive head rocking, bobbing or swaying) [1, 4, 7, 63, 127] Chaining (forced immobility using chains and other constraints) [1, 4, 7, 63, 131] Drugging (use of amphetamines to prolong working periods) to prepare animals for tourism [63] Entrapment (confinement in spatially highly restrictive and understimulating environments) [63, 131] Miscarriages (due to mistreatment trauma) [63] Premature weaning (separation of calves from parents) [63] Social deprivation (isolation, lack or prevention of normal contact with same species and groups, and social frustration) [1, 4, 7, 63, 131] Malsocialization (exposure to atypical and abuse behavioral interactions with humans) [63] Breakdown (post-traumatic stress disorder/c-PTSD) [63, 130] Injuries and disease (ocular trauma from flash photography, dermatitis, dermal abrasions, limb lesions, foot fissures, nail cracks, spinal problems from performing rides, wounds, infections, foot pad burns, stress, malnutrition, constipation, and endo and ectoparasites, death) [1, 4, 7, 63, 126, 131] >>> 14 >>> 16