VN October 2023

Oktober 2023 17 coronaviruses; mice and hamsters have also been artificially infected with the virus [145]. Disease risks associated with wildlife may involve discrete transmission routes and pathogen-host-species interfaces. For example, while snakes may present a low direct risk to humans from viral agents, they nevertheless possess the potential to act as vectors for such pathogens through the dissemination of contaminated feces (including SARS-CoV-2) from ingestion of carrier or infected prey (e.g., bats) [146]. Viruses require some degree of infection to facilitate particle replication; thus, unless an elephant becomes subclinically or clinically infected, multiplication of virus is contained and dispersal limited to, for example, respiratory recirculation of contaminated air. Whether or not elephants are susceptible tonovel coronaviruses andother emergent infections and diseases, they are capable of inhaling large volumes of surrounding air, holding it in their respiratory tracts (including trunks), and then expelling that air and aerosolized droplets along with potential pathogens over long distances [40], and enclosed spaces present notable hazards [111]. It is probably reasonable to presume that elephant respiratory tracts offer environments that may at least be conducive to relevant survival periods for various bacteria, viruses (including coronavirus), and other microbes and disperse these liberally. Even relatively large indoor spaces and limited-scale outdoor areas and conditions, such as (potentially) within tens of meters range of elephant respiratory expirations or riding on elephants, are all relevant. However, while the routes of transmission and infection of diverse potential pathogenic agents and subsequent diseases between elephants and humans are clear, based on available evidence, elephant-to-human SARS-CoV-2 disease risks appear to be low. Elephant-to-human injuries For centuries, humans have used elephants for diverse reasons including military combat, hauling, traditional religious festivals, entertainment in zoos, circuses and parades, and increasingly wildlife tourism [50]. There are also many incidents of captive elephants that deliberately or, more often, accidentally injure keepers and public members, sometimes fatally, at zoos and circuses worldwide [54]. However, research papers that discuss captive elephant-to-human attacks in Asia and Africa frequently do not distinguish between elephants being used for tourism or other purposes (such as traditional keeping or logging); thus, data are difficult to interpret. An investigation of 34 incidents of aggressive or out-of-control elephants in Kerala, South India, was conducted (where elephants are used commonly in festivals) and recorded 15 human deaths and 21 injuries over a 2-year period [147]. A survey conducted on 200 mahouts, also in Kerala, found that over 90% had been attacked by their elephants at some point in time [148]. Over three decades, 352 human fatalities (94% mahouts) were caused by elephants used in festivals and processions in Kerala, and elephant stress levels were implicated in the attacks [149]. However, it is unclear to what extent local habits or tourism are involved. Another survey of 135 elephants in Tamil Nadu, South India, reported 11 human deaths and 27 injuries throughout the time the elephants were at the facility [150]. While elephant tourism in South Africa has been predominantly focused on observational safaris involving free-living elephants, it is becoming increasingly popular to add in more interactive experiences with captive “trained” elephants [151]. For example, reported high profits from elephant riding have led tour operators to use inadequately trained elephants and mahouts, resulting in welfare concerns and injuries to both mahouts and tourists [151]. Elephant welfare Strongconcernshavebeenpresentedbynumerouswelfarecampaigning organizations regarding the treatment and poor welfare of elephants for many tourism-associated activities [61, 62, 152, 153], and several scientific reports have also been produced that lend support to a number of these concerns [1, 4, 7, 63, 126, 127, 128–132, 154]. Reports from welfare assessments and surveys of sanctuaries describe physical injury- and disease-causing factors affecting elephants in tourism, including eye trauma and blindness from excessive flash photography, dermal and other infections from poor environmental conditions, foot burns from overexposure to high ground (e.g., concrete) temperatures, limb damage fromchains and other ligatures, spinal damage fromperforming rides, andmalnutrition [7, 63]. Contrary to certain perceptions, elephants are wild, non-domesticated, species [63]. Domesticated species, for example, dogs, develop positive associations with humans due to numerous specific genetic, affiliative behavioral, and other factors [155]. Accordingly, evolved innate drive states should be presumed to govern elephant biology, psychology, and behavior for life in the wild, which would normally involve them occupying vast home ranges and having complex social lives within highly affiliative groups. Importantly, an animal’s ability to voluntarily act on drive states to have control over its interactions with the environment is essential to homeostasis and survival [156, 157]. Lack or absence of such control can result in a raft of negative states, including stress, maladaptive stereotypies, sedentarism, learned helplessness, hyperactivity, increased exploratory and escape activities, immunosuppression, and disease [156, 157]. Unsurprisingly, psychological and behavioral factors affecting elephants in tourism reportedly do include fear, maladaptive stereotypies, self-injury, post- traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, aggression, social deprivation, malsocialization, drugging, food deprivation and chronic hunger, and long periods of labor [63]. It may be argued that the use of, for example, certain punitive measures (e.g., ankuses to control elephants), or performances (e.g., riding), do not necessarily infer abusive treatment; rather, their way of application may be problematic [136]. However, we would argue that all highly negative coercive methods and all unnatural performances for spurious purposes are inappropriate and contraindicated. Data for prevalence regarding specific and general abusive treatments of elephants in tourism are incomplete. This paucity of information is perhaps partly due to most historical studies being somewhat narrowly focused, as well as possibly some abuses being covert. However, observation and documentation of abuses appear to be commonplace; individually, many of these welfare factors warrant concern, and collectively these concerns may be tantamount to severe cumulative and systematic abuses. The association between poor animal welfare and increased risks to public health and safety is well understood, especially involving large and potentially dangerous animals. Stress, whether acute, chronic, subtle, or gross, is known to significantly impact immune competence in human and nonhuman species [158–160], with negative effects on susceptibility to infection and disease, as well as recovery from disease, and these issues directly relate to elephants and their increased ability to both experience and transmit diseases, for example, TB [161]. It is beyond reasonable question that the human management of elephants for tourism recreation frequently involves diverse stressors and, thus, resultantly a range of implied stress-related outcomes, one of which will be compromised immune condition. As indicated previously, compromised immune condition is relevant not only to the