Vetnuus | March 2026 13 Discussion and Perspectives In this analysis, we explored the potential impact of conservation strategies on the enzootic circulation of pathogens, which is the critical first step before pathogens spillover into human populations. We highlighted that conservation strategies can have a broad range of effects on pathogen transmission—some positive, some negative. Notably, while some of these impacts may be anticipated, others remain unpredictable, raising concerns about the safety of their implementation. From our current understanding, establishing several small reserves with moderate interconnection between patches seems to offer the most reliable outcome. This approach hinges on the adaptive capacity of pathogens, a factor that can be measured, making it a more manageable strategy. Today, our knowledge is not sufficient to model quantitatively and provide a forecast on the impact of conservation biology on the reduction of pathogen circulation. Therefore, it’s essential to quantify both host species’ competence, their evolution and patch connectivity to fine-tune the optimal reserve size, striking a balance between species richness and low pathogen transmission. Conceptually, a win-win scenario appears achievable with this strategy of several small reserves. Our findings present a more optimistic perspective compared to earlier work, yet align with studies suggesting that the dilution effect often arises in the context of biodiversity loss [13]. The difference likely stems from the metrics we employed. Our focus was on enzootic circulation of pathogens, whereas the link between enzootic transmission, human exposure, and subsequent human-to-human spread involves distinct processes that require separate, careful consideration. While our study addresses a crucial gap by assessing how specific conservation strategies may affect pathogen transmission within animal communities, it does not provide direct recommendations for public health policy. However, we believe that fully understanding the mechanisms at play in each stage of pathogen transmission—from wildlife to humans—will be key to developing successful, win-win strategies that benefit both biodiversity and human health. Indeed, the success of conservation approaches in supporting public health hinges on carefully balancing the risks, benefits, and hazards they introduce [24]. Achieving an ecosystem with high biodiversity, which also implies greater pathogen diversity, but low pathogen transmission—the ultimate goal—requires a delicate balance. While this approach reduces risk (by preventing pathogen amplification), it increases hazard (more pathogens within the ecosystem [24]). Managing these hazards effectively calls for a better characterisation of the interface between enzootic circulation and human exposure. It is also important to recognise potential tensions between the most ecologically beneficial conservation strategies and those aimed at reducing pathogen transmission. Identifying and navigating these trade-offs is essential to designing sustainable, locally tailored solutions that engage all stakeholders. Conservation strategies are not solely about maximising species richness; they may prioritise preserving genetic diversity or species’ evolutionary potential [41]. In addition, social or ethical objectives often influence these strategies, such as reintroducing iconic species or eradicating invasive ones [42]. Socio-economic factors, like indigenous land rights or sustainable food production, also play a crucial role [43]. Reducing pathogen transmission is not without trade-offs either, as pathogens play a crucial role in shaping biodiversity [44] and habitat quality [45]. Therefore, efforts to limit pathogens should focus on those with zoonotic potential. Meanwhile, certain conservation strategies, like managing habitat matrices or establishing ecological corridors, are too context-dependent to predict their broader impact on pathogen transmission accurately. Strategies aimed at promoting the dilution effect or mitigating pathogen amplification could offer pathways to reducing pathogen transmission. Targeting species that contribute to dilution could help manage zoonotic outbreaks [46]. Ecological traits also matter: fast-living species, which often serve as disease reservoirs [47], tend to thrive in degraded landscapes, potentially increasing their number and elevating transmission risks. Developing surveillance systems in areas where human-wildlife interactions are frequent, like urban parks, could provide crucial insights into zoonotic pathogens transmission [18]. In conclusion, exploring ‘win-win-win’ strategies benefiting public health, biodiversity, and the economy is both feasible and essential. Mathematical models exist to test these ideas, and further research based on local data is needed to understand their effectiveness in diverse environments. While more data is required for safe application of large reserves, our study demonstrates the potential of conservation strategies based on small reserves to limit pathogen circulation and reduce human exposure safely. However, caution is necessary, as pathogen transmission effects can be complex. Now more than ever, integrating conservation with public health strategies is crucial. v References Ripple, W.J.; Wolf, C.; Newsome, T.M.; et al. World Scientists’Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice. 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