Vetnuus | May 2025 17 duplicate—inflorescences of 22 plant species were also analyzed. In all 47 honey samples, fragments (2 to 82/kg) and fibres (10 to 336/kg) were observed; for the 12 analyses in duplicate, there was a variation from 0 to 57.2% (fibres) and from 0 to 55.5% (fragments), indicating that there is a heterogeneous distribution of these particles in the packaged products. No alarming differences were observed between samples from small and large beekeepers, indicating that processing and packaging do not significantly contribute to particle loading from the outside. Regarding the analysis of inflorescences, synthetic particles were found in all samples, and, as in honey samples, fibres were more abundant (77.9 ± 19%). Such results show that foreign particles are retained in flowers, and bees transport such materials to their hives during pollination and food collection. Diaz-Basantes et al. (2020) found microplastics in honey, beer, milk, and soft drinks in Ecuador, considering such particles as emerging contaminants; the analyses were carried out because the authors indicate that surveys such as this one were carried out only in Europe and the USA, with no precedents in Latin America. Therefore, samples of industrialized and artisanal products were analyzed through improved techniques to determine possible correlations with the intensity of anthropic activities. The authors showed the highest averages of MPs in the honey and beer samples, justifying that, in the case of honey, such results result from the bees’ pollen and nectar collection process since these animals carry out a simultaneous collection of microparticles. Kartalovic et al. (2021) developed a method for detecting phthalates (which are chemical compounds capable of making plastic more malleable) in honey samples, stored in plastic and glass packaging for 3 years to determine the migration of these additives. The method proved to be reliable and reproducible, as it allowed the detection of diethyl phthalate in samples stored in plastic packaging (3.34 µg/kg); as well as the detection of Diisobutyl phthalate, Di-n-butyl phthalate, and bis (2-ethylhexyl) with their concentrations in plastic packaging samples 15.84, 16.01, and 14.44 µg/kg. Notardonato et al. (2020) developed analytical and chemometric methods to analyze the presence of plastic residues in honey samples, including phthalates and bisphenol-A. The developed technique can simultaneously determine the presence of several phthalate compounds using dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction assisted by an ultrasound vortex (UVA-DLLME). The technique was applied to 47 honey samples to identify similarities between them. Similarities were identified regarding the origin of the samples and differences regarding the compounds, phthalates, or bisphenol. Mühlschlegel et al. (2017) analyzed five honey samples, from different locations in Switzerland, for the presence of microplastics, following a standardized protocol similar to that described by Liebezeit and Liebezeit (2015), in order to separate the plastic microparticles from the particles of natural origin, such as pollen, propolis, and wax. After the analyses, it was identified that most of the fibres found were cellulose or polyethylene terephthalate, possibly of textile origin. In addition, fragments associated with glass, polysaccharides, and chitin, in smaller proportions, were found. Thus, the authors concluded that no significant results were found regarding the presence of plastic microparticles in the honey samples analyzed. All review articles related to the contamination of honey by MPs (Jin et al. 2021; Myszograj 2020; Toussaint et al. 2019; Vitali et al. 2022) also studied the contamination of foods other than honey. Despite that many studies (Liebezeit and Liebezeit 2015; Dias-Basantes et al. 2020; Kartalovic et al. 2021; Notardonato et al. 2020) showed that honey was contaminated, in various degrees, by microplastics and phthalates, remains to be addressed their effects on human health. Jassim (2023) reports that humans ingest high doses of microplastic particles over the years and that many of them come through food and breathing, since according to the latest global estimate, there are approximately 93 to 236 thousand tons of plastic microparticles floating in the oceans, a value that corresponds to 51 trillion particles. When these particles become lodged in the human body, they can lead to oxidative stress, inflammation, and DNA damage. However, the author points out that the information and data available are still insufficient to explain how in fact these contaminants affect human health and what is their behavior after entering the organism. Therefore, the analysis of the 33 selected articles pointed out that the study of microplastics in bees and their products is still incipient. There is a necessity for greater attention to this subject since several studies cited throughout this revision raised many doubts about the possible effects of microplastic contamination on bee behaviour and health. It is also evident that such studies should be applied and expanded to other species of bees since research has been concentrated on the genus Apis and bees around the world are very diverse (~ 20,000 species; Michener 2007), so the results obtained for a specific genus may not apply to other species. It is also necessary to highlight that the experiments involving bees and microplastics were all carried out in the laboratory, under artificial conditions and not under those that are found in the environment, and the results obtained may not be the same as those obtained in the laboratory. Another point to consider is the concentrations used in these experiments, since these may not correspond to those found in natural environments and may therefore also induce adverse effects of those found in the laboratory. This review is, in fact, the first systematic review specifically addressing the relationship between bees and microplastics. The other reviews cited in this work are broader in scope, covering various animals and environments without focusing on bees and their critical role in maintaining ecosystems. Therefore, this study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of research on “microplastics and bees,” using specific criteria to ensure a focused and in-depth analysis of the subject. The studies indicate that microplastic contamination has notable consequences on bee health. However, many emphasize the need for further research, as current knowledge still leaves gaps in understanding some critical issues. In addition to the need to apply existing protocols to other bee species (beyond the genus Apis) and conduct studies under natural environmental conditions Leading Article
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