VN October 2023

Vetnuus | October 2023 12 Mycobacterium tuberculosis (potentially Mycobacterium bovis ; Mycobacterium avium , Mycobacterium elephantis ) (Asian and African elephant species) Tuberculosis Respiratory, pneumonia, malaise, fever, systemic dispersed disease, pain, death E-H (confirmed) E-OA (potential) OA-E (potential) H-E (confirmed) [20, 22, 25, 35, 40, 41, 44] Viral Orthopoxvirus spp. (Asian and African elephant species) Elephant pox virus infection Dermal lesions, mucous membrane lesions, conjunctivitis, fever, systemic disease, death E-H (confirmed) E-OA (potential) OA-E (confirmed) H-E (potential) [12–15, 30, 38, 82] Parasitic Cryptosporidium spp. (Asian and African elephant species) Cryptosporidiosis Gastrointestinal, fever, weight loss, pain, anorexia, malaise, septicemia, meningitis, death E-H (potential) E-OA (potential) OA-E (confirmed) H-E (potential) [18, 33, 83] Oesophagostomum aculeatum (Asian and African elephant species) Helminthiasis Gastrointestinal, cardio-respiratory, malaise, anorexia, weight loss, pain, fever, systemic disease, death E-H (potential) E-OA (confirmed) OA-E (confirmed) H-E (potential) [30, 84–86] Toxoplasma gondii (Asian and African elephant species) Toxoplasmosis Gastrointestinal, malaise, anorexia, weight loss, pain, fever, systemic disease, death E-H (potential) E-OA (potential) OA-E (potential) H-E (potential) [23, 28, 32, 39, 88] E-H=Elephant-to-human, E-OA=Elephant-to-other animal, OA-E=Other animal-to-elephant, H-E=Human-to-elephant Bacterial pathogens and diseases Anthrax Anthrax is a disease caused by the pathogen Bacillus anthracis. In humans, the infection results in cutaneous, pulmonary, flu-like, gastrointestinal signs or symptoms, fever, malaise, hemorrhage, meningitis, sepsis, or death. In elephants, infection is similar to other animals and results in hemorrhage, splenomegaly, swollen lymph nodes, edema, septicemia, and death, although some animals may be asymptomatic before death. Non-specific symptoms in elephants may also include subcutaneous swellings, excessive bloating, incomplete rigor mortis, and rapid decomposition of carcasses [16, 17]. Infectionmay be spread in particular through contact with open skin lesions, and to a lesser extent by the ingestion of spore-contaminated vegetation or soil, the inhalation of airborne particulate matter, such as moisture droplets and dust (although the risk from dust, e.g., associated with dust bathing animals may be minimal) [26, 75], and the consumption of bushmeat [17]. Despite having a long history with both wildlife and human diseases, much is unknown about the incidence or prevalence of anthrax generally and specifically regarding the elephant-human interface [17]. However, large outbreaks of anthrax have been reported involving 10,000 people in Zimbabwe and many cases elsewhere, for example, in Bangladesh [89–91]. Globally, the case incidence of human anthrax is estimated at 20,000–100,000 [92]. Clostridium infection Clostridium infection is a major global disease caused by Clostridium difficile . In humans, the infection results in gastrointestinal signs and symptoms, malaise, fever, muscle spasm, tetany, convulsions, respiratory paralysis, or death and is transmitted through fomite, direct contact and ingestion of contaminated food, and fecal-oral routes [24, 30, 93, 94]. In elephants, the infection results in gastrointestinal signs that may proceed to fatal enterocolitis, and typical post-mortem findings in elephants include necrohemorrhagic and ulcerative enteritis [95]. The emergence of this frequently commensal organism as a major pathogen may stem in part from antimicrobial overuse, agricultural