VN April 2023

Vetnews | April 2023 25 from those observed in Western cultures (eg Alves et al. 2010; Su et al. 2015). Indeed, cultural “types” that relate to pet ownership (eg degree of agriculture or predominant religion; Knobel et al. 2008) may serve as useful predictors of invasion risk or management capacity, although this assertion remains unexplored in the context of invasive species policy. Second, the interplay between market demand, consumer behavior, and species’ traits is key to accurately characterizing invasion risk. If a species’ establishment success is dictated by propagule pressure, which is driven by a high volume of sales to consumers, then a close look at life-history traits that support large numbers for sale is of considerable interest. There is also a need to explore the extent to which the life-history traits that increase establishment success are the same traits that make a species common in the exotic pet trade, and/or more likely to be deliberately released by pet owners and sellers. For example, wild- caught species that are common and widespread in their native range may be more profitable because they are easy to collect and their generalist habits require less specialized (ie cheaper) care. Behavioral and life-history traits associated with large native range sizes are known to correlate with establishment success in birds (Carrete and Tella 2008; Blackburn et al. 2009). Similarly, breeding centers tend to focus on housing highly fecund species that experience low mortality in captivity, either because of a wide environmental tolerance or low handling needs (eg behaviorally docile), both of which are correlated with establishment success. We also exotic pets and what motivates them to release these pets. A better understanding of human motivations and behaviors is therefore critical for assessing invasion risks associated with the exotic pet trade. Research addressing this complex interplay of economics, human behavior, and biology is required to fully identify how risk manifests within the exotic pet trade and develop an evidence base for implementing policy solutions. Third, even though exotic pets can become harmful invaders, such species are still compelling and desirable companion creatures to the general public. This emotional attachment means that public opposition to eradication or control programs can be fierce, making release prevention and rapid removal of released animals key to reducing invasion risk (Reaser and Meyers 2007). Although several such policy options have been implemented in limited geographical locations or trialed under specific contexts (Figure 5), very few have been evaluated within the framework of minimizing invasion risk in the exotic pet trade. Basing policy options on a strong evidence base is vital because the economic interest in maintaining a healthy and growing exotic pet market is strong, and public tolerance of failed eradication programs may be limited (Reaser and Meyers 2007). Finally, a potentially important and difficult aspect of the exotic pet trade to evaluate is the black market. An economic perspective on black-market trade entails focusing on obscured costs, benefits, and uncertainties. The costs to participants of wildlife crime involve the direct cost of illicit transport, probability of detection by authorities, and legal consequences if caught. To practitioners, the latter two are highly uncertain, and the chances of detection and consequences may vary widely between countries. The benefits of illegal trade involve either sales revenue or personal enjoyment if Figure 4: Green iguanas (Iguana iguana) have long been im- ported into US as exotic pets, with millions of individuals, largely derived from captive populations, having been sold to consum- ers since the 1970s. Non-native populations of this species Figure 5 Reducing the likelihood that exotic pets become inva- sive requires a combination of policy approaches that target pet owners and engage a wide variety of stakeholders in locating and controlling nascent populations. In Florida, state agencies and private companies have conducted removal and awareness events centered on (a) the lionfish (Pterois sp) invasion of nearby coral reefs, and (b) conducting educational outreach events to encourage owners of exotic pets, such as Nile monitor lizards (Varanus niloticus), to refrain from releasing their animals. Article >>> 26