Vetnuus | September 2025 27 visits at midday. Cows showed a preference for earth dams in the dry season. Unknown adults mostly visited troughs during the dry season and concrete pans during the wet season (Fig 5C). Concrete pans were visited at night, troughs in the morning and earth dams in the afternoon (Fig 6C). There were no recorded visits during the midday period. The unknown adult category showed no seasonal or daily preferences for any of the waterhole types. The bull and cow category visited troughs most during the combined wet and dry seasons, and during the wet season. Troughs were visited most at night with no recorded visits to waterholes for the other daily periods (Fig 6C). Binomial test results for bull and cow groups showed no seasonal or daily preferences for any of the waterhole types. No visits to waterholes were recorded for the dry season, or the morning, midday and afternoon periods. As for the black rhino, we believe that white rhino bachelor groups consisting primarily of sub-adults avoided the waterhole type (troughs) that territorial bulls frequented with cows. Territorial bulls are aggressive and do not tolerate other bulls within their territories [32, 34]. GLM results for white rhino (Table 5), indicate that the interaction between the dry season and the afternoon period (P = 0.01) led to an increase in frequency of visits to waterholes, and that White rhino in the study area visited waterholes most during the afternoon period (P = 0.05). White rhinos frequent open grassland areas and avoid areas with high densities of woody plant species, selecting the predominant waterhole types found in these areas, which are troughs and earth dams [32, 34]. Simultaneous use of waterholes by young elephant bachelor groups, black rhinos and white rhinos in areas where there are no large adult elephant bulls has been problematic in the past [51]. Several white rhino deaths were recorded in Pilanesberg National Park when young elephant bulls intimidated rhinos at waterholes in episodes of what were observed as young bachelor elephants trying to mate with rhinos [51]. This behaviour stopped as soon as large elephant bulls were introduced into the area [51, 54]. In terms of our findings that indicate both elephant bachelor groups and rhinos visit and prefer earth dams and concrete pans, it is important to ensure that a proper mature elephant bull hierarchy is in place for areas that contain bachelor groups of elephants and rhinos. Although there was spatial and temporal overlap at waterholes in this study, the interaction between the three study species at the different waterhole types for OWNR was limited due to their various social groupings preferring different waterhole types at different times of the day. Elephants spent 37% of their time at reservoirs (Fig 5A) and had exclusive use of this waterhole type, as neither of the rhino species could access water in reservoirs. Black rhinos spent 69% of their time at earth dams (Fig 5B), which could be related to these waterholes being in relatively woody areas, which are the preferred habitat for black rhinos [32, 34]. White rhinos spent 47% of their time at troughs (Fig 5C), suggesting that they, like the black rhino, prefer the waterhole types placed within their preferred habitat, which is relatively open areas dominated by grass. Both black and white rhinos are territorial, which resulted in sub-adult bachelor groups using waterholes at different times than bull and cow groups, to prevent confrontation. The differences in waterhole preferences between elephants and rhinos can be attributed to their distinct ecological and physiological characteristics. Elephants, with their large body size and high water requirements, are more inclined to select waterholes that provide clean water and opportunities for cooling and bathing. The preference for reservoirs may also be influenced by the presence of other game species that inhabit natural waterholes, making reservoirs a more appealing option for elephants seeking undisturbed water sources. On the other hand, black rhinos, known for their ability to survive in arid and semi-arid environments, exhibited a consistent preference for earth dams across seasons. This preference may be due to factors such as the availability of water and the avoidance of potential competitors or predators that frequent other waterhole types. White rhinos, being grazers and relying on open grasslands, showed a preference for troughs during the dry season, likely due to the concentrated availability of water in these artificial structures. Conclusion Artificial waterholes play an important role in supporting wildlife populations in conservation areas [55]. This study investigated the preferences of elephants, black rhinos, and white rhinos for various artificial waterhole types in the South African savannah. Four waterhole types were examined: earth dams, concrete pans, reservoirs, and troughs. Findings revealed that each species exhibits distinct preferences and utilisation patterns. Elephants favoured reservoirs, earth dams, and concrete pans, with breeding herds showing a particular preference for reservoirs and troughs. Black rhinos preferred large waterholes like earth dams, while white rhinos showed preferences for troughs and earth dams. Understanding the preferences of the study species is important for effective waterhole management and conservation. By identifying the specific waterhole preferences of these species, conservationists and reserve managers can optimise the design and placement of waterholes, reducing competition and promoting the well-being of both target and non-target species [20, 35, 36]. Identifying which species prefer which waterhole types can help prevent conflicts and inform strategic waterhole placement [12, 20]. As natural surface water diminishes during the dry season, artificial waterholes become essential for the behaviour and survival of various species [3, 21, 35, 36]. Information from this study can guide water provision and translocation strategies for the study species. Effective management of artificial waterholes is key to enhancing habitat use and ensuring the long-term viability of species utilising these waterholes [51, 54]. Given the poaching pressures the three study species face throughout their range [28–31], implementing efficient conservation plans requires careful consideration of artificial waterhole preferences. Future research should explore additional factors influencing waterhole selection, including water quality, anthropogenic effects, and seasonal variations. Broader studies across different ecosystems will further refine conservation strategies and enhance our understanding of the study species’ needs. Furthermore, investigating waterhole preferences in different ecosystems and regions will enhance our understanding of the study species and contribute to the development of effective conservation strategies. v Acknowledgments We would like to thank Transfrontier Africa for their facilitation of this research and the landowners of Olifants West Nature Reserve for their support throughout the data collection process. We would also like to thank Mr Craig Spencer for his guidance and assistance throughout the research project. References available on request. Research Article
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