Vetnuus | September 2025 19 Research Article African elephants (Loxodonta africana) are mixed feeders that typically drink water daily but can go without it for up to four days [32]. Adult elephants require 150 to 300 litres of water per day [27, 32, 33] and do not have a preferred drinking time [27, 32–34]. In contrast, black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) are browsers that enjoy wallowing and need to drink water once every four to five days but will drink more frequently (35 litres per day) if water is readily available [32–34]. Adult black rhinos prefer artificial waterholes over natural ones and drink throughout the day and night [32–34]. White rhinos (Ceratotherium simum), on the other hand, are grazers that need to drink water daily, and like the black rhino, also wallow [27, 32, 34]. An adult wild white rhino requires up to 72 litres of water a day [32–34], shows no preference for a particular waterhole type [32–34], and drinks at least twice a day [32–34], most often during the late afternoon and after dusk (17:00 to 21:00) [27, 32], but also during the morning and midday periods [32, 33]. Given their dependence on water, elephants, white rhinos, and, to a lesser extent, black rhinos are influenced by water availability [3, 27, 32– 34]. Understanding the factors that affect the behaviour and movement patterns of these mega-herbivores is of particular interest from a conservation management perspective, considering their significant impact on the environment, other species, and each other [13, 25, 26]. No comparative regional studies were found that investigated waterhole type preferences among various elephant social groupings. Utilisation patterns of waterholes by elephants influence how other wildlife species use these water sources [20, 35]. As natural surfacewater availability diminishes during the dry season, the utilisation of artificial water sources by water-dependent species exhibits seasonal variations, becoming increasingly important [3, 21, 36]. Unfortunately, elephant and rhino populations are facing severe threats due to poaching, habitat fragmentation, and illegal trade of their products [37, 38]. These large herbivores, especially in water-limited habitats, are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of poaching [39]. The demand for ivory, rhino horn, and related products has resulted in significant declines in elephant and rhino populations across Africa [40]. Combined with habitat fragmentation, illegal harvesting has left small, isolated populations of these species, posing further threats to their survival [41]. Acquiring additional information about the water utilisation behaviour of elephants, black rhinos, and white rhinos, including their preferences for specific artificial waterhole types, is crucial for effective management and protection of these animals. This study focuses on the utilisation of four different waterhole types by elephants, black rhinos, and white rhinos in the Olifants West Nature Reserve (OWNR) in southern Africa. The study investigates the timing of their visits to waterholes, the frequency of their visitations during different seasons, and their preferences for specific artificial waterhole types. This knowledge is valuable for managing areas that support populations of elephants, black rhinos, and white rhinos, as well as for establishing new areas for their relocation to enhance population conservation efforts. Investigating the utilisation of artificial waterholes by these study species is particularly important considering their declining numbers and the ecological and economic consequences associated with their decline [27–30]. While information on the population densities of these species would contribute to a more comprehensive discussion on waterhole attendance, such data was not provided to the researchers due to the high levels of poaching associated with these species. Understanding the preferences and utilisation patterns of elephants, black rhinos, and white rhinos for artificial waterholes is important for the effective management of these species. This study provides valuable insights into their visitation patterns, preferences for specific waterhole types, and seasonal variations in waterhole utilisation. Such information can guide conservation strategies, including the optimisation of waterhole design and placement, to reduce competition and support the long-term survival of these iconic and threatened megaherbivores. The findings will assist conservation managers in making informed decisions to protect these species in both current and future protected areas. Methods The study was conducted by the first author, who was a student employee of the nature reserve where the research took place. The researcher obtained permission from reserve management to do the study, which involved monitoring waterholes. Ethical clearance for the study (2014/ CAES/037) was granted by the University of South Africa’s (UNISA) Ethics Department. Study site The OWNR is located within the Balule Private Nature Reserve, forming part of the larger Kruger National Park (KNP) (Coordinates: -24.1987, 30.9090) (Fig 1). The OWNR is approximately 8 800 hm2 in size, with open borders into the KNP to the East and South. The western boundary of the OWNR is fenced and represents the furthest point to the West that animals can travel. The Olifants River forms the northern boundary of the OWNR. >>>20
RkJQdWJsaXNoZXIy OTc5MDU=