Vetnuus | May 2025 11 Discussion From the thirty-three works selected, there was a great tendency for review works that addressed the subject, so it was decided that it would be essential to consider them in the results, and as such, the data shows the need for major primary studies on the subject. This is primarily because these reviews focus on insects and pollinators in general, without emphasizing the crucial role of bees in maintaining ecosystems. As for the results related to the topic (bees and honey), there is equivalence between them, indicating a concern regarding the health of animals and human nutrition through the ingestion of contaminated honey. Since species from the genus Apis are generalists with rustic characteristics, they have adapted satisfactorily in various environments and can be found worldwide (Parker et al. 2010). For this reason, these species are widely used in scientific research (mostly A. mellifera) and studies can be replicated anywhere in the world. However, as they are invasive species in many locations, such as the New World, little is known if the results obtained in these studies can be extended to the numerous existing native species (social or solitary). Regarding the analysis of the period in which the works were published (Fig. 3), it is observed that the first publication (2013) occurred 43 years after the first detection of microplastics in the oceans (1970) and after 9 years of the incorporation of the term “microplastic” in the scientific literature (2004) (Thompson et al. 2004). Such data indicate that in recent years the importance of bees in the ecosystem service they provide has become increasingly evident. Are bees at risk from MPs? The review article written by Al Naggar et al. (2021) addresses microplastics as a worrying emerging pollutant that has received significant attention in the last decade, as it is a ubiquitous contaminant in various spaces of the environment (atmosphere, soil, and water), affecting a wide range of organisms, mainly aquatic, but which can also end up in the atmosphere (Zhang et al. 2020). Because of this ubiquity, the authors point out that terrestrial organisms, as well as aquatic, interact with these plastic particles and many of these organisms provide essential ecosystem services for the maintenance of their environments (Al Naggar et al. 2021). This study then cites others that indicate an increase in the loss of swarms of A. mellifera since 2006 in Europe and the USA due to parasites, pesticides, habitat loss, infections, and inappropriate beekeeping practices—however, they point out that there are no studies that show the connection between these population declines and the possible exposure of bees to microplastics. The reviews by Al Naggar et al. (2024) and Bashir et al. (2024) provide comprehensive summaries of key research on the toxicity of MPs in honeybees, each offering different perspectives. Both reviews highlight that the findings are varied, largely depending on the material, size, and dosage of MPs used in experiments. The authors emphasize the need for more extensive studies in this area to better understand the impacts. They note that MPs have been identified in honey and various bee organs, posing significant risks to bee health. These risks manifest in behavioural changes, cognitive impairments, and disruptions to immunity and gut microbiota. Additionally, the reviews report alterations in feeding rates, body weight loss, and changes in the general profile of the bee cuticle, all of which could negatively impact the overall fitness and survival of honeybees. However, both reviews emphasize that most of the studies conducted so far have been laboratory-based, underscoring the need for more field and semi-field studies to understand the real-world consequences of MP contamination on bee colonies. They suggest that future research should focus on evaluating key aspects of colony health, such as brood patterns, queen-laying behaviour, drone vitality, and overall hive vigour. Additionally, it is crucial to determine whether the observed changes in bee health are influenced by the type of MP, its size, morphology, and concentration. Moreover, there is a significant gap in the understanding of the synergistic toxicity of MPs when combined with other environmental contaminants, such as pesticides, antibiotics, pathogens, and heavy metals. This gap highlights the need for comprehensive studies that consider the complex Leading Article Figure 3: Number of selected publications from 2000 to 2024 Figure 4: Number of publications selected by country (red – Italy, with six publications; green – China, with five publications; yellow – Germany, with three publications; blue – Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Egypt with two publications each; purple – Belgium, Ecuador, India, Netherlands, Republic of Serbia, Switzerland with one publication each)
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