VN April 2023

Vetnuus | April 2023 22 of market dynamics (WebPanel 1). Published literature documenting the species composition of the pet trade, as well as the network of countries involved in that trade, often focuses exclusively on species listed under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES; Bush et al. 2014). However, species traded under the guidance of CITES are a small fraction of all species sold as exotic pets (Bush et al. 2014). Moreover, most countries do not keep comprehensive records of the species imported as pets, and of those that do, large proportions of imports are often listed as “unidentified” (eg marine and freshwater fishes; Smith et al. 2008; Rhyne et al. 2012) or are misidentified and/or mislabeled (Gerson et al. 2008). Despite these complications, a variety of sources indicate that the market for exotic pets is enormous. For example, Suet al. (2014) reported that 2–5 million individual birds were sold per year as pets worldwide during the 1990s, with one-quarter of all extant bird species being represented, while Robinson et al. (2015) found that, of CITES-listed reptile species, 18.8 million individuals were imported into the European Union (EU) between 1996 and 2012. The importation and keeping of fish species dwarf that of all other vertebrate groups traded as exotic pets. The US is the largest importer of marine aquarium fishes, with annual imports reaching more than 11 million individual fish, representing over 2300 species from 125 families (Rhyne et al. 2012, 2017). The number of freshwater fishes traded internationally is an order of magnitude greater than marine fishes (Livengood et al. 2014). In most countries, the domestic exotic pet trade is potentially massive, but remains virtually undocumented. For any vertebrate group, intra-country trade can transport species outside of their native range and into novel regions within a country, potentially resulting in established non-native populations. Although specific statistics are unavailable, there are examples that hint at the potential magnitude of intra-country non-native pet introductions. Over 800 species and varieties of fishes are bred in Florida (FDACS 2018), the majority of which are not native. The red-eared slider (Trachemys scriptaelegans), a turtlecommonlykept as apet in theUS, isnative to the south-central regionof theUSbut has establishednon-nativepopulations innumerous other parts of the country, includingHawaii (Kraus 2009). Similarly, BarrosodeMagalhães and Jacobi (2013) identified345ornamental fish species for sale in stores inMinas Gerais, Brazil, 151 of which were not native to the region despite being native to other parts of Brazil. Selling exotic pets can be a lucrative endeavor and, as with many other markets, there are financial opportunities in introducing new products. Annual revenues from the US reptile industry are estimated to be ~US$1.4 billion (Collis and Fenili 2011). Springborn et al. (2011) estimated that each additional species in the reptile and amphibian trade generated long-term profits to importers of approximately US$90,000, and Springborn et al. (2015) reported a similar value (US$79,300) for birds. These figures, while modest compared to other potential market investments, represent only the average value in a set that includes both highly lucrative species and those with relatively marginal profitability. For this reason, the global exotic pet market is taxonomically dynamic across time, with imports of some species ranging widely in magnitude per year and in the number of years that they persist in the trade (Romagosa 2014). The rise of trade via non-traditional marketplaces (eg websites, fairs, social media) has vastly expanded direct-to- consumer sales (Figure 2), raising the importance of this pathway for analysis and enforcement. Although this pathway is more often associated with trade in non- living wildlife products (eg ivory, leather, feathers), trade in live species is substantial. Stringham and Lockwood (2018) documented 94,230 unique individual pet listings (representing 652 species) on three popular reptile and amphibian web vendors in the US between 2012 and 2016. Similarly, a survey of Facebook listings in the Philippines uncovered 1623 live birds and reptiles for sale over a 17-day period Figure 2: Keeping vertebrate species as pets has increased greatly in popularity over the past several decades worldwide. Today’s markets for exotic pets include direct sales through traditional outlets (eg pet stores) but also through sales of animals directly to consumers via online forums and pet fairs (“expos”) as shown here. Some fraction of these purchased animals will escape confinement or be deliberately released and consequently have the opportunity to establish as non-native species Article